GMAT Crash Course in Effective Writing (VI)

5b8. Commas
THE COMMA

The comma is the most abused punctuation mark, possibly because writers are sometimes so worried about following rules that they forget to pay attention to the way the words sound when spoken. Commas help a reader understand the rhythm of the sentence. If you are having comma problems, try saying your sentence out loud, and listening for natural pauses. The function of a comma is to slow the reader down briefly and make the reader pause. The omission of a comma can allow phrases and clauses to crash into one another, thereby confusing the reader. Commas can influence the meaning of your sentence. Consider the following:

The food tastes terrible, however the cook fixes it. The food tastes terrible, however, the cook fixes it.

In the first sentence, the food tastes terrible no matter how the cook fixes it. In the second sentence, the cook improves the taste of the food. Again, the comma controls the meaning.

RULES FOR COMMAS

1. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses connected by and, but, or, nor, for. Bob was usually a quiet man, but he screamed upon entering the room.The strange man lying under the table appeared to be dead, or just possibly he was only napping.

If the independent clauses are short, you may omit the comma.

The man was still and his foot was bleeding.
His hat was on but his pants were off.

2. Use a comma to separate elements in a list or series. Don't omit the final comma. Bob tried to breathe, to keep from fainting, and to remember his first aid. Next to the man was a bassoon, a water balloon, and a raccoon.

3. Use a comma to separate introductory phrases and clauses from the independent clause, particularly if the phrase or clause is long.
After catching his breath, Bob squatted next to the man and took his pulse.When he felt nothing, Bob picked up the bassoon and blew.
Although he had never played a bassoon before, he somehow managed to make beaufiful music.Again, if the introductory phrase is short, you may omit the comma:

When he stopped playing it was dark outside.

4. If the introductory phrase is a gerund, participial, or infinitive phrase, use a comma even if the phrase is short. Otherwise the reader may be confused: When Bob began to eat, rats ran across the carpet.
Not: When Bob began to eat rats ran across the carpet.

5. In a series of adjectives, use a comma if the adjectives could also be separated by and. The nimble, fat, and furry raccoon began to poke at the water balloon.(Could write as: The nimble and fat and furry raccoon . .If the and doesn't fit, leave out the comma:

The man's white cotton shirt was balled up in a corner.

(Wouldn't write as: The man's white and cotton shirt . .)

If this rule seems confusing, try reading the sentence aloud. If you make a slight pause between adjectives, put in commas. Otherwise, leave them out. Another test: if you can change the order of the adjectives, put in commas.- For example:

The handsome, brilliant scholar
Or: The brilliant, handsome scholar

The frilly party dress
Not: The party frilly dress

6. Use commas to set off clauses but do not use commas for restrictive clauses. (Quick review: and essential or restrictive clause is one that can't be left out of a sentence. Clauses that don't define can be lifted from the sentence without changing the meaning.) Bananas that are green taste tart.

(That are green defines which bananas we mean)

Bananas, which grow in the tropics, do not need refrigeration.
(Which grow in the tropics refers to all bananas. The clause can be lifted from the sentence without changing the meaning.)

Let's look at a sentence that you could punctuate either way, depending on the meaning:

The men who were tired and hungry began eating sardines.

(who were tired and hun gry is a defining clause, telling us which men we mean)

The men, who were tired and hungry, began eating sardines.

(Who were tired and hungry describes all of the men and doesn't differentiate these men from other men who weren't tired and hungry.)

7. Words or phrases that interrupt the sentence should be set off by commas.
Now then, let's get down to work.
"Save me," he said, before falling down the stairs.
On the other hand, error can lead to revelation.
What the candidate promised, in fact, is impossible to achieve.
Hello, I must be going.

8. Use commas to set off an appositive. An appositive is a noun or pronoun that explains or identifies the noun that precedes it.
Mrs. Dingdong, my favorite teacher, is wearing a wig. Ralphie, the president of the student council, is on probation.

Remember that commas are one way to make your writing clear. Reading your sentences aloud is a very good way to find the natural place for commas, as is inspecting your sentences for ambiguity or confusion.

5b9. Semi-colons

RULES FOR SEMICOLONS

1. Use a semicolon to link two independent clauses.
To give a good party, you must consider the lighting; no one feels comfortable under the bright blare of fluorescent lights.

Note that the two clauses are connected in thought. Also-and this is the thing to understand about semicolons-you could use a comma and a conjunction in place of the semicolon.

To give a good party, you must consider the lighting, since no one feels comfortable under the bright glare of fluorescent lights.

2. Use a semicolon to separate elements in a list if the elements are long - or if the elements themselves have commas in them.

To get completely ready for your party, you should clean your house; make sure your old, decrepit stereo works; prepare a lot of delicious, strange food; and expect odd, antisocial, and frivolous behavior on the part of your guests.

3. Semicolons belong outside quotation marks.
One man at the party sat in a corner and read "The Adventures of Bob"; he may have been shy, or he may have found "The Adventures of Bob" too exciting to put down.

5b10. Colons

RULES FOR COLONS

1. Use a colon when making a list.
There are four ingredients necessary to a good party:
music, lighting, food, and personality.

5b(11). Using Hyphens Correctly

A. Use the hyphen with the compound numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine, and with fractions used as adjectives.
CORRECT: Sixty-five students constituted a majority.
CORRECT: A two-thirds vote was necessary to carry the measure.

B. Use the hyphen with the prefixes ex, all, and self and with the suffix elect.
CORRECT: The constitution protects against self-incrimination.
CORRECT: The president-elect was invited to chair the meeting.
C. Use the hyphen with a compound adjective when it comes before the word it modifies, but not when it comes after the word it modifies.
CORRECT: The no-holds-barred argument continued into the night. The argument continued with no holds barred.

D. Use the hyphen with any prefix used before a proper noun or adjective.
CORRECT: His pro-African sentiments were heartily applauded.
CORRECT: They believed that his activities were un-American.
E. Use the dash to indicate an abrupt change of thought. In general, however, formal writing is best when you think out what you want to say in advance and avoid abrupt changes of thought.

CORRECT: The inheritance must cover the entire cost of the proposal-Gail has no other money to invest

5b12. The Apostrophe

The apostrophe is used to show ownership. Most of the time, it presents no confusion: Bob's bassoon, the woman's finger. The tricky part is using an apostrophe when the owner is plural.

RULES FOR APOSTROPHES

1. if the plural noun doesn't end in -s, add an apostrophe and -s. (This is the easy part.)
the women's fingers
the bacteria's growth
the mice's hairballs

2. If the plural ends in -s, just add an apostrophe.
the babies' bottoms the horses' hooves the politicians' promises

3. If the word is a proper noun that ends in -s, add an apostrophe and an -s. (This is the part people get wrong.)
Yeats's poem
Ross's riddle
Chris's crisis